Title

Token Economies and Autism: Communication

Overview of target population

Causes - There is no single cause for autism, but the most commonly accepted theory is that it is caused by abnormalities in brain structure or brain function. Brain scans from a child with autism, and a child with a typical neurological functioning brain, shows that the child with autism's brain is differently shaped and structured differently. Some other common theories as to what causes autism includes links among heredity, genetics, and other medical problems. Further studies appear to show a pattern of autism, or other disabilities, in many families. These studies further support the theory of the disorder being genetic. It also appears that some children are born susceptible to autism, but researchers have yet to identify the trigger that causes the disorder to develop (Causes, 2015).
Rates of occurrence - Autism tends to be more frequent among individuals who have certain medical conditions, such as fragile X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, congenital rubella syndrome, and untreated phenylketonuria, also known as PKU (Causes, 2015). The prevalence of Autism worldwide is about 1%. Also, autism affects more males than females. It is estimated that males are affected 2 to 3 times more by autism than are females (Lai).
Common behaviors associated with topic- There are numerous behaviors that are common to individuals with autism. Some of these common behaviors include difficulties with social communication and repetitive and restricted behaviors and interests (Lai). Communication, both verbal and nonverbal, is often difficult for individuals with autism. Often individuals have troubles reciprocating communication with others. Also, children with autism are often thought to be unaffectionate. This however can be untrue. Individuals with autism may be affectionate, however it is usually on their terms (Rapin).

Overview of Intervention

Token economies are defined as "a contingency management system that allows participants to earn tokens for presenting specific, positive behaviors that are later exchanged for predetermined backup reinforcement" according to Maggin, Chafouleas, Goddard, and Johnson (2011). The tokens need to be linked to reinforcement options that are meaningful; they usually represent a classic monetary system. Also, token economies have been proven effective with both high and low-incidence disabilities (Maggin et al., 2011). Token economies are often used to teach children with Autism pro-social skills, such as talking and asking questions. They are also used to lessen anti-social behaviors, such as repetitive talking and copying words someone else has already said. According to Matson and Boisjoli (2009), the type of disability that a person has does affect how a token economy should be implemented. They say, "The focus [of token economies] has largely been on social skills, enhancing speech, learning to initiate verbal/social interactions and other similar interpersonal skills. Thus, type of DD [Developmental Disability] does effect applications of behavioral programs, at least within the context of token economies."
How to do it - There are numerous ways to set up a token economy, and depending on how you choose to set yours up, there are different steps and parts of the process.
There is a simple 10 step process on how to accomplish a token economy, according to Tom McIntyre, of www.BehaviorAdvisor.com (McIntyre).

1. Select the behaviors to be rewarded. When selecting which behaviors to reinforce, you should select ones that follow the rules and guidelines of the entire classroom.
2. State the desired behaviors in specific and observable terms. When stating these, make sure to phrase them positively. You need to tell the student exactly what the desired action is that you wish to have, rather than what they should not do. It is also a good idea to promote a replacement behavior for inappropriate action. That replacement behavior should serve the same purpose as the present errant action.
3. Decide how you will measure the behaviors. You need to choose how you will best record/measure the behavior you are wishing to observe. Some examples for this include percentage correct, number of minutes engaged in proper behavior, and number of times the student displays the appropriate behavior.
4. Decide where to monitor the behaviors. Where are you going to monitor the behavior? Some examples include only in the classroom, only on the playground, in the classroom and on the bus, etc.
5. Select the initial reinforcer. It is key to use a reinforcer that is easy to administer. You need to make up a token, item, or marking that will prevent theft or counterfeiting.
6. Select your back-up reinforcer. You need to involve your students in the selection process to make sure that these reinforcers will be seen as valuable. Make sure that they are appropriate, and that you consider the educational value, the cost, the possible misuse, and any danger that might be involved.
7. Place a price (in tokens) on your back-up reinforcers. Record the actual price of any items that you purchased. The higher the price it cost you, the more tokens you should require at trade-in time. You should also place a price on the back-up reinforcers that are activity-oriented such as free time, listening to music, playing on an iPad, painting, etc. Make a chart that lists the number of tokens needed to purchase each of these back-up reinforcers and post it on a wall in clear sight for the students.
8. Place a value on the tokens. Give the tokens a value that is worth more at the current point, rather than in the future. As the students' behaviors begin to improve, the value of the token will have to decrease to motivate the students to keep improving their behavior. Next, develop a chart that will be visible to the students that lists the number of tokens that will be awarded for each behavior and then decide whether an inappropriate behavior will result in not receiving a token, or if the student will be "fined" and have tokens taken away for that misbehavior. Finalize the details by developing your own monitoring sheet to keep track of awards, fines, and deciding how often, and when, tokens can be exchanged for back-up reinforcers. Some examples include at the end of the day, or at the end of each week. You need to develop storage containers and procedures for yourself and the students, and make a method for displaying the back-up reinforcers.
9. Start your program. Make sure that you have your materials ready to show to the students when you explain the program, in a way that they can understand. You need to be very positive and upbeat. Remember, you are selling your program to the students! Post the charts and review them multiple times. Implement the program, providing them with tokens as soon as they ear them. Add your back-up reinforcer menu when necessary, and maintain the students motivation to strive for success.
10. Periodically modify your system to wean your students from the token economy. This usually involves more positive behavior, by the student, for a longer period of time in order to obtain a token. Make sure to let the student know that the change is because they are doing well, and that they can do so much more. If you face strong resistance, or the student refuses to work harder for less, you should consider changing the level of the reinforcer being used.

According to Wolfe, Gast, and Dattilo (2003), there are some basic principles to use when setting up a token economy. These principles include:
Step 1: Pick which behavior you will reward.

• The behavior being reinforced should fall in line with classroom rules and guidelines.
• The target-behavior, the behavior that is to be changed, should be measurable, observable, and changeable.

Step 2: Pick the tokens.

• Tokens should be tangible.
• Tokens should be handed out immediately after the target behavior has occurred.
• Tokens must be easy to earn.
• Tokens must be appropriate for the age of the students.

Step 3: Decide what the backup reinforcers will be.

• Backup reinforcers are what the child earns the primary reinforcers for. Once a child gets a certain number of primary reinforcers (tokens) they can then trade them in for the back up reinforcer.
• Back up reinforcers can be prizes, such as, candy or toys; or they can be free-choice, such as extra time to watch television or more time at recess.

Step 4: Decide the rate at which you will present tokens.

• Decide whether or not you will allow students to lose tokens for wrong behaviors.
• Will you give out tokens continuously? (Every time that the target behavior occurs) or will you give them out intermittently? (only sometimes that the target behavior occurs).

Step 5: Decide how often primary reinforcers will be exchanged for backup reinforcers.

• How many primary reinforcers will have to be earned in order to receive the back up reinforcers?
• Will backup reinforcers be earned after a certain amount of primary reinforcers are earned, such as 10? Or will students earn backup reinforcers a certain amount of times throughout the day?

Variations
There are many variations of token economies. They can be used with individuals or with whole groups, such as an entire class. Token economies can also vary in regards to the types of tokens that are given out. Some economies are based off of fake money, others have chips (like poker chips), pennies or marbles. Also, token economies can be used with other forms of reinforcement such as praise. Adding praise and other forms of reinforcement to token economies allows for an even stronger gain in positive behaviors. A token economy can be done either at home or in school. Teachers often use token economies to encourage on-task behaviors and homework completion. Parents may also use token economies to encourage good behavior in the home or chore completion.
Who Implements (teachers, counselors etc.)
A token economy can be implemented by many different people. Teachers (both general education and special education), counselors, and family members can all implement a token economy. It is best if the person implementing the token economy is trained in how to do so. Also, a token economy can be implemented both at school and at home. If this is the case, it is important that the rate in which tokens are given out remains consistent between both home and school (Potterfield, 2013).
Materials Needed
Token economies have many different types of materials that are needed. The type of materials that are needed depend on what type of token economy you choose to use. The main materials used in a token economy include, but are not limited to: token economy boards, tokens, and backup reinforcers.
Examples of materials
There are numerous types of materials that can be used for token economies. One of the major items is a token economy board. The board helps the child visualize how far along they are in the process of receiving their backup reinforcer. Examples of items that are commonly used for tokens include: marbles, coins, stickers, and fake money. For younger children, pictures of their favorite cartoon characters are sometimes used as tokens. Backup reinforcers can be items, such as, candy or toys. Or backup reinforcers can be opportunities, such as, getting extra T.V. or iPad time, extra recess, or a play date. If a back up reinforcer is an opportunity, such as iPad use, the time that the student gets to use the iPad should not be exceedingly long; a time range of five to fifteen minutes is usually acceptable. Backup reinforcers can also range in size; a child may be working towards earning a vacation to a water park or they may be working towards earning a candy bar (Potterfield, 2013). The number of tokens that a child needs to earn in order to receive the back up reinforcer should vary based on the size of what the backup reinforcer is. A vacation should require more tokens than a candy bar.
Potential Pitfalls
One potential pitfall of a token economy is that the reinforcer used is not actually reinforcing to the child. Every child will be reinforced by something different; some like candy, others like toys, etc. The reinforcer needs to be something that the child enjoys, otherwise, the child will not be motivated to do the work to earn the reinforcer. Another potential pitfall of a token economy is that the reinforcer is given out too often or not often enough. If the reinforcer is given to the child too often, they will become satiated and no longer want the reinforcer. If the reinforcer is not given to the child enough, then the child will not want to work towards earning the reinforcer because they do not see a reason for working toward it; they need the reinforcer to be given often in the beginning in order to see a point to working hard to earn the reinforcers. Another pitfall is giving up too early on using a token economy if the child is not responsive. It may take some time for the child to recognize that the token economy is reinforcing. This is one reason why in the beginning, tokens should be given out more often. Another potential pitfall of a token economy is accidentally reinforcing a wrong behavior. If the reinforcer, the token, is not given immediately after the target behavior happens, then there is potential to accidentally reinforce a wrong behavior, one that you do not want to happen. It is a good idea to also verbally reinforce the child when you give the token to them; this lets them know that the target behavior is something that they should do more often in order to earn more tokens (Potterfield, 2013).

References-

Causes | Autism Society. (2015, July 15). Retrieved September 10, 2015, from http://www.autism-society.org/what-is/causes/
Lai, M., Lombardo, M., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. ProQuest. Retrieved September 16, 2015, from ProQuest.
Maggin, D., Chafouleas, S., Goddard, K., & Johnson, A. (2011). A systematic evaluation of token economies as a classroom management tool for students with challenging behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 49(5), 529-554. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2011.05.001
Matson, J., & Boisjoli, J. (2009). The token economy for children with intellectual disability and/or autism: A review. Elsevier, 30(2), 240-248. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2008.04.001
McIntyre, Tom. "Tokens." Tokens. Accessed October 1, 2015.
Potterfield, J. (2013). Token Economy - Applied Behavior Analysis & Autism. Retrieved October 14, 2015, from http://www.kcbehavioranalysts.com/aba-toolbox/token-economy
Rapin, I. (1997). Autism. The New England Journal of Medicine. Retrieved September 16, 2015, from ProQuest.
Wolfe, B., Gast, D., & Dattilo, J. (2003). Effects of a token economy system within the context of cooperative games on social behaviors of adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 37(2), 124-141. Retrieved October 2, 2015.

External Links-

http://www.educateautism.com/token-economy.html
http://www.educateautism.com/free-materials-and-downloads.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGc8dFdQsJw
https://vkc.mc.vanderbilt.edu/assets/files/tipsheets/tokeneconomytips.pdf
http://www.kcbehavioranalysts.com/aba-toolbox/token-economy
http://www.behavioradvisor.com/Tokens.html